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Chronic Kidney Disease Learning Zone
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CKD

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Read time: 90 mins
Last updated:25th Apr 2022
Published:21st Oct 2021

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a complex debilitating condition affecting millions of people worldwide. Discover:

  • The unmet needs of CKD in our expert interview with Professor Hiddo Heerspink
  • The immense burden patients experience and risk factors for CKD in our expert interviews with Professor Vlado Perkovic and Dr George Bakris
  • The complex pathophysiology of CKD in our infographics
In this section

Unmet needs in chronic kidney disease

Professor Hiddo Heerspink, from the University Medical Centre Groningen in the Netherlands, highlights the unmet needs in chronic kidney disease, including early diagnosis. 

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major noncommunicable disease, a leading cause of mortality and morbidity, and an ever-growing global epidemic. The worldwide prevalence of CKD over the last decade has also been progressively increasing concurrently with the expansion of comorbid conditions, such as diabetes and hypertension1–5.

Apart from the increased mortality and morbidity, CKD also places an immense burden on patient quality of life and the economy. Yet, despite the prevalence and severity, various challenges remain in the management of this disease1–4.

Why is early chronic kidney disease screening and diagnosis important?

All-stage CKD has a global prevalence of approximately 9.1% or around 697.5 million people (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 649.2 to 752.0 million)6.

Despite this high prevalence, various unmet needs exist for patients with CKD; many of whom are affected by multiple comorbidities7–9.

Numerous countries lack adequate resources to respond to the needs of patients with CKD and up to 30% of patients who begin dialysis do not receive appropriate follow-up10–15

Early referral to a nephrology specialist is essential for improving outcomes for CKD patients; however, CKD is largely asymptomatic until the later stages of the disease and identifying disease progression remains a challenge16.

While the introduction of the 2012 Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) guidelines led to improvements in the early detection of different stages of CKD, CKD patients often receive late referrals to specialists that can potentially result in suboptimal care16. This could be due to a lack of awareness among health-care professionals and at-risk people, leading to inadequate screening and diagnostic testing17.

Early screening and diagnosis are necessary for risk stratification as well as providing earlier medical and lifestyle interventions with the aim of slowing disease progression and ultimately reducing morbidity and mortality16.

In Alport syndrome, a rare genetic disorder characterised by progressive kidney disease, time to renal replacement therapy was longer for patients who started renin–angiotensin system (RAS) inhibition early (Figure 1)18.

T1 CKD_Fig1.png

Figure 1. The impact of earlier treatment on time to dialysis (Adapted18). CKD, chronic kidney disease.

An important element of early medical intervention is the treatment of modifiable risk factors, such as diabetes and hypertension, and the use of preventative medicine and lifestyle modification19. Moreover, risk prediction models may help identify those at high-risk of having a reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) prior to CKD onset and allow for the individualisation of care16.

As diagnostic strategies and treatments are widely available for CKD, there is a key unmet need for appropriate guidance on early diagnosis that allows for appropriate management to prevent the progression of the disease16,20

The appropriate implementation of these targeted screening programmes that aim to provide timely identification, triage, and management of CKD are needed to help reduce disease progression to kidney failure, improve patient quality of life, and reduce healthcare costs16.

In an increasingly burdened healthcare system, the accurate stratification of risk also provides benefits in ensuring the appropriate allocation of resources based on need16. High income countries spend as much as 2–3% of their annual healthcare budget just on the treatment of kidney failure despite these patients representing only 0.03% of the total population17,21.

Why is it important to manage comorbid conditions in chronic kidney disease?

The aim of CKD treatment is to slow the progression of the disease and to prevent further CKD complication. This is largely accomplished by managing modifiable risk factors, such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and the initiation of reno-protective medication16.

The difficulties that healthcare professionals face when providing this care were noted in a systematic review (N = 20) of primary care providers concerns regarding the management of CKD22.

The systematic review identified various barriers healthcare professionals face when identifying and managing CKD, including22:

  • The challenging nature of CKD
  • Difficulties in managing patients with multiple comorbidities
  • Dissatisfaction with the current CKD guidelines

These barriers were further exacerbated by the limited time healthcare professionals were able to have with their patients22.

Diabetes

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) occurs in 30–40% of diabetes patients and is a common cause of diabetes-associated mortality5. CKD due to diabetes also accounted for 30.7% (95% uncertainty interval [UI], 27.8­–34.0) of CKD disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), the largest number of DALYs of any cause in 2017 (Figure 2)6.

CKD due to type 1 and type 2 diabetes resulted in 2.9 million (95% UI, 2.4–3.5) DALYs and 8.1 million (95% UI, 7.1–9.2) DALYs, respectively (Figure 2A)6.

To mitigate the progression of CKD, guidelines recommend glycaemic control with an individualised haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) target ranging from <6.5% to <8.0% in patients with diabetes and CKD not treated with dialysis23

T1 CKD_Fig2.png

Figure 2. Number (A) and rate (B) of global DALYs for CKD by underlying cause in 1990 and 2017 (Adapted6). CKD, chronic kidney disease; DALYs, disability-adjusted life years.

It has been proposed that intensive glycaemic control (IGC) with a HbA1c target of less than 6.5% may confer greater reno-protective benefits in diabetic patients that are at risk of developing CKD24.

Hypertension

Another prevalent comorbidity in patients with CKD is hypertension, accounting for up to 25% of CKD cases5. It is a result of the activation of the neurohumoral axis, RAS activation, and hypervolaemia. Managing arterial hypertension is an essential element of CVD prevention25.

Antihypertensive therapies have been previously shown to delay CKD progression, either directly through lowering systemic blood pressure or through various other independent mechanisms25.

The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2021 guidelines recommend the individualisation of blood pressure targets and treatments based on25:

  • Age
  • Coexistent comorbidities
  • Risk of progression
  • Tolerance of treatment

It is most efficacious to begin these measures in the early stages of CKD, further highlighting the importance of early detection for improving CKD outcomes16. Once in place, these efforts may reduce healthcare expenditures and improve the management of patients with this immensely burdensome condition.

Cardiovascular disease

Patients with CKD show a high risk for cardiovascular events: 50% of patients with CKD stage 4 to 5 have CVD, and cardiovascular mortality accounts for approximately 40%–50% of deaths in patients with advanced CKD (stage 4), and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) (stage 5), compared with 26% in controls with normal kidney function26. Further to the high risk for fatal atherosclerosis-related complications, including myocardial infarction and stroke, cardiovascular death results from heart failure (HF) and fatal arrhythmias, especially in advanced CKD stages26.

Although CKD is one of the most common comorbidities in CVD, few treatments are available for the high-risk population of patients with advanced CKD26.

  • Current guidelines recommend lowering systolic blood pressure to a range of 130–139 mm Hg in patients with diabetic or nondiabetic CKD, and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone inhibitors (RAASi) are first-line agents in CKD27
  • In patients with coronary artery disease without CKD, antiplatelet therapy can reduce cardiovascular risk, but in CKD, the prognostic benefit is unclear26
  • Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, used to treat patients with type 2 diabetes, show cardiovascular and kidney protective effects28

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Burden of chronic kidney disease

Professor Vlado Perkovic, from the University of New South Wales in Australia, describes the complications and burden of chronic kidney disease.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an immensely debilitating condition that is often diagnosed late in the disease cycle and can require a lifetime of dialysis or a kidney transplant at the later stages29. Around 700 million people have all-stage CKD; more than the number of people with diabetes, osteoarthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or depressive disorders6.

What is the global burden of chronic kidney disease?

In 2017, CKD resulted in 1.2 million deaths6. This number is projected to increase to around two to four million by 20406.

Globally, CKD resulted in more deaths in 2017 than tuberculosis or HIV, and nearly as many deaths due to road accidents6

While prevalence estimates vary from approximately 2% to 44%, CKD prevalence is considered to be increasing in various countries around the world29. A useful proxy for CKD prevalence is the number of patients undergoing renal replacement therapies30. Figure 3 highlights the prevalence of renal replacement therapy, including haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis and kidney transplantation per one million people by country30.

T1 CKD_Fig3.png

Figure 3. Global prevalence of renal replacement therapy (Adapted30).

The broad range in prevalence highlights the wide variety of unmet clinical, humanistic, and economic needs around the world29.

An analysis by the Kidney Early Evaluation Program (KEEP) found that the prevalence of CKD was highest in people aged ≥80 years and was as high as 44% in those ≥65 years31. Similar estimates were seen in the elderly of 23.4% to 44% in31,32:

  • Australia
  • Canada
  • China
  • Iceland
  • Italy
  • Japan
  • Mexico
  • Netherlands
  • Norway
  • Singapore
  • Spain
  • Switzerland
  • Thailand
  • USA

Adding to the complexity of the disease burden, notable increases in the prevalence estimates for modifiable risk factors that affect the initiation and/or progression of CKD have also been observed29.

What is the clinical burden of chronic kidney disease?

The symptom burden experienced by patients with CKD is high regardless of the stage of the disease with prevalent symptoms including33:

  • Fatigue
  • Feeling drowsy
  • Pain
  • Pruritus
  • Dry skin

In particular, people with more advanced stages of CKD can experience a particularly high symptom burden that impacts on their daily life33.

The Global Burden of Disease study has reported an increasing burden of CKD over the past 20 years, to which diabetes is the most significant contributor34,35. Mortality rates associated with CKD have also increased over the past 25 years; ranked originally at 25th in 1990, CKD became the 17th highest cause of mortality in 201535–37. CKD now contributes to 1.35% of the global burden of disability life years lost35–37.

CKD mortality is associated with decreases in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and increases in albuminuria38, which is notably highest in patients on kidney replacement therapy; a 40–50% rate of 5-year survival of those on dialysis30.

Improved prospects are seen with patients receiving a kidney transplant, with 5-year survival rates of 86% and 93% for patients receiving deceased or living donor kidneys, respectively30.

Moreover, life expectancy is only one third of the age and sex­matched general population for patients on dialysis compared to patients who receive a kidney transplant with a life expectancy of 45–85% of the general population30.

What is the quality of life burden of chronic kidney disease?

The patient perspective is an essential component of care for a patient with a chronic disease that has no cure. Patient perspectives drive the understanding of illness experience, treatment expectations, and unmet needs.

Across various studies, the most burdensome conditions commonly reported by CKD patients are39–45:

  • Cognitive impairment
  • Dementia
  • Sleep disturbance
  • Pain
  • Emotional dysfunction
  • Physical dysfunction

Of these conditions, physical dysfunction was considered to be the most pervasive and debilitating39–45. Perception of general health was noted as being low across all eGFR groups, mental health component scores were similarly low in patients with a decrease in eGFR and an increase in illness severity, and reduced eGFR was associated with significantly reduced physical component scores39,45. Health related quality of life was also seen to decline with the progression of CKD (Figure 4)41.

T1 CKD_Fig4.png

Figure 4. Health-related quality of life and progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) by stage (Adapted41). Statistical significance for trend across three CKD stages within each domain P<0.001. CKD, chronic kidney disease; KDQOL-36, Kidney Disease Quality of Life – 36.

Modifiable risk factors associated with lower quality of life in CKD patients were39,44,45:

  • Less education
  • Lower exercise
  • Depression
  • History of cardiovascular disease
  • Lower income
  • Unemployment

Economic burden of chronic kidney disease

As CKD is progressive it produces a significant economic burden through the increased resource utilisation and escalating costs due to increased disease severity and deterioration of health. A range of studies have shown that 12 to 24 months before dialysis, patients with CKD accrue substantial costs due to hospitalisation46–55.

Employers also face a significant impact with a continually aging population, which is gaining greater numbers of individuals older than 65 years in the workplace56–59. Moreover, anaemia-related morbidity in the workplace is increasingly becoming a concern as the burden and costs for patients with CKD with anaemia are significantly higher than those with only CKD60-61. Prior to dialysis, Treatment for anaemia was found to improve work productivity by 91.5%, reduced absenteeism by 52.3 days per year, and reduce health care costs56,59.

Risk factors for chronic kidney disease

Dr George Bakris provides insight into the risk factors for CKD.

The interlaced nature of CKD risk factors and comorbid illnesses can complicate the characterisation of CKD. Patients can have either risk factors that predispose them to developing CKD, risk factors that contribute to disease progression, or both29.

The ideal approach to CKD prevention therefore requires the identification of the incidence, prevalence, and distribution of these risk factors and appropriate mitigation strategies62.  

Who is most at risk of developing chronic kidney disease?

Professor Vlado Perkovic outlines the concordant comorbidities and key risk factors for chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Multiple risk factors and comorbid illnesses can lead to the progression of CKD and an increased mortality63.

A variety of patient characteristics are known to be non-modifiable risk factors for the development of CKD (Table 1)29. Age and gender are notable examples of a non-modifiable risk factor for CKD64. All stages of CKD are most common in people >65 years; however, the probability of developing end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is greater among people ≤65 years64.

While the prevalence of CKD is higher in women than in men, men are more likely to go on to develop end-stage renal failure64

As seen in table 1, a wide variety of known risk factors, emerging risk factors, and biomarkers have been reported65.

Table 1. Common chronic kidney disease risk categories and risk factors (Adapted29). Modifiable risk factors in bold. CKD, chronic kidney disease.

Risk category Risk factors
Susceptibility Older age, reduction in kidney mass, low birth weight, family history of CKD,
US racial or minority status
Initiation Diabetes, hypertension, autoimmune disease, systemic infections; urinary tract infections, stones, or obstruction; drug toxicity
Progression Higher proteinuria, hypertension, poor glycaemic control in diabetes, smoking, obesity, dyslipidaemia, cardiovascular disease, high dietary-protein intake, decreased nephron number
End-stage decline Lower dialysis dose, temporary vascular access for haemodialysis, anaemia, lower serum albumin, late referral to nephrologist, mineral and bone disorders,
metabolic acidosis

A number of these risk factors, including diabetes and cardiovascular disease, are modifiable and may be delayed with early and appropriate identification and treatment.

The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2021 guidelines, focusing on topics related to the prevention or management of individuals with kidney diseases, prioritise blood pressure, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) as prominent risk factors in CKD23,25The lack of data from large cardiovascular outcome trials in the high-risk group of patients with CKD is a call to investigate new therapeutic options in dedicated trials in the CKD population; especially in people with advanced CKD26.

What are the risks associated with chronic kidney disease comorbidities?

In high-income and middle-income countries, diabetes mellitus and hypertension are the most common underlying diseases associated with CKD (Table 2)37,62. Specifically, CKD prevalence is suggested as being as high as 30–40% in people with diabetes30. However, it is not known if the CKD present in these patients is a direct result of their diabetes or due to microvascular disease that is associated with diabetes30.

The two leading causes of end-stage renal failure are diabetes and hypertension, respectively66

Traditional cardiovascular risk factors are highly prevalent in patients with CKD. The contribution of such factors to atherosclerotic vascular disease is especially relevant in earlier CKD stages26. Non-traditional risk factors of vascular disease in CKD include vascular calcification and inflammation26.

In low- and middle-income countries, CKD is associated with infectious diseases, glomerulonephritis, and the inappropriate use of medications, such as nephrotoxins, NSAIDs and nephrotoxic antibiotics67,68.

Table 2. Relevant global risk factors for chronic kidney disease (Adapted62). ACEI, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; B, billion; BP, blood pressure; CKD, chronic kidney disease; HIC high-income countries; LMIC, low- and middle-income countries; M, million; SE, southeast; YR, years.

Global prevalence Projected CKD risk Primary prevention Secondary prevention
Diabetes type 2
All diabetes
387M; concentrations highest in Western Pacific (138M) and SE Asia (75M)

Type 2
∼95% of global prevalence		 ∼40% overall and
>50% in most non-White populations		 Education, lifestyle, diet, exercise, weight management Glucose and BP control, BP lowering with ACEI and ARB, lifestyle factors; e.g., avoid high dietary protein
Hypertension
Adult
31% globally
(28.5% in HIC,
31.5% LMIC)

1.39B people
(349M in HIC,
1.04B in LMIC)		 ∼10% Education, lifestyle, diet, exercise, weight control, smoking, stress reduction BP control, ACEI, or ARB if high-level albuminuria, other types of medication

With shifting socio­economic statuses and ageing populations in low- and middle-income countries, diabetes and hypertension may become the prominent aetiological causes for CKD30.

Due to the association between CKD and low birthweight, millions of children have a high risk of developing CKD later in life and typically comprise the youngest patients that develop the disease69,70

Children can also be born with a risk of CKD in later life due to low birthweight caused by preterm birth or intrauterine growth restriction; the risk of preterm birth and low birthweight are estimated to be ~10% and ~15%, respectively69,70.

An analysis using the OpenSAFELY health analytics platform, which includes data from more than 17 million people in the UK, assessed the risk factors for COVID-19 mortality associated with CKD. In the analysis it was found that patients with CKD are at higher risk of COVID-19-associated mortality than those with other risk factors, such as chronic heart and lung disease71.

Notably, the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study and the CKD Prognosis Consortium meta-analyses are two ongoing studies that are researching kidney function and CKD progression risk factors in diverse and complex patient populations69,70.

Can someone be genetically predisposed to chronic kidney disease?

Genetic abnormalities can lead to the development of CKD through a variety of mechanisms, such as nephrocalcinosis, cystic degeneration, weakening epithelial integrity, and abnormal processing or storage of metabolites or glycoproteins72-74.

In terms of risk, the probability of developing ESRD compared to the general population is 3-9 times higher in people with a family history of CKD75. Genetic testing has also shown that approximately 20% of early onset CKD can be attributed to a monogenic cause76.

At-risk populations or people should be screened, diagnosed, and treated early to prevent onset and delay disease progression62

Moreover, specific ethnic populations have been associated with a higher incidence of CKD77:

  • Aboriginal Australians
  • African Americans
  • People of Spanish descent in Central and South America
  • Indigenous populations in Canada
  • South and East Asians
  • Pacific Islanders

This may be due to specific mutations in these populations, for example mutations associated with focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis have been associated with people of African descent78.

However, endemic forms of CKD may also suggest regional triggers, such as specific infections, toxins, behaviours or climate related factors79. For example, a correlation between agricultural work in Latin America, Sri Lanka, India, Cameroon, Mexico, and Australia and chronic interstitial nephritis has previously been observed79-81.

To appropriately diagnose a patient, an understanding of the pathogenesis of CKD is essential.

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Chronic kidney disease pathogenesis

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) describes a range of heterogeneous diseases that can compromise the structure and function of the kidneys. While the expression of CKD can be highly variable due to differing pathologies, severity, and progression rate, most forms of this burdensome disease are progressive and irreversible82.

What is chronic kidney disease?

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) can be described as the ongoing loss of renal function and excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix in the glomeruli and tubular interstitium over time83. Kidney dysfunction can manifest as hypertension, oedema, changes in urine output or quality, and delayed growth in children30.

Chronic kidney disease can be idiopathic or caused by a wide array of conditions, including82:

  • systemic diseases, such as diabetes and hypertension
  • autoimmune reactions and renal transplant rejection
  • drugs, toxins and metals
  • infections
  • mechanical damage
  • ischaemia
  • urinary tract obstruction
  • genetic alterations

What is the consequence of nephron loss in chronic kidney disease?

During gestation, a person will generate an average of 950,000 nephrons per kidney (ranging from 200,000 to >2.5 million)84. Following this period, new nephrons cannot be generated. Nephrons will instead increase in size to meet renal demands85.

T1 CKD_Fig5.png

Figure 5. Contributing factors to nephron loss throughout life (Adapted30). T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus.

While nephrons can adapt to temporary increases in filtration load by increasing glomerular filtration rate (GFR) without structural changes, using their renal reserve, various circumstances can lead to persistently increased GFR; promoting nephron hypertrophy and the eventual loss of nephrons (Figure 5)86.

Why does nephron hypertrophy occur in chronic kidney disease?

In response to the loss of nephrons, glomerular hypertension can induce hypertrophy; an increase in size of the remaining nephrons. This hypertrophy is triggered through a persistently increased GFR and filtration pressure across the glomerular filtration barrier resulting in glomerular hyperfiltration30.

The increase in nephron hypertrophy occurs through the activation of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) in addition to increased transforming growth factor­α (TGF-α) and epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) expression. These activities are increased to reduce intraglomerular pressure while maintaining the glomerular filtration rate87,88. However, while this increased activity reduces glomerular hypertension due to the increased filtration surface, it also further promotes nephron hypertrophy and further nephron loss89.

Increased GFR and nephron hypertrophy can enable the appearance of an apparent ‘normal’ renal function even following a nephron loss of 50%30

While hyperfiltration can maintain a ‘normal’ renal function despite a loss of nephrons, increases in glomerular size through hyperfiltration can be damaging30.

Specialised epithelial cells that cover the outer surfaces of glomerular capillaries, known as podocytes, undergo hypertrophy to maintain the glomerular filtration barrier of the nephron. However, the increasing hypertrophy eventually hits a threshold where too much shear stress is placed on the podocytes30.

CKD_T1_Fig_6.png

Figure 6. Injury, hyperfiltration and hypertrophy of the nephron in chronic kidney disease (Adapted30). CKD, chronic kidney disease; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; FSGS, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis; PEC, parietal epithelial cells; RAS, renin-angiotensin system; TGFα, transforming growth factor-α.

In the later stages of the disease, the increased shear stress on the podocytes promotes their detachment. The consequential development of proteinuria also inhibits the replacement of lost podocytes by parietal epithelial cells (PECs). Instead, scar formation occurs through focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)30.

This eventually leads to a feedback loop causing further nephron loss and increases in the GFR of the remaining nephrons (Figure 6)30.

How does glomerular filtration become impaired in chronic kidney disease?

Podocyte hypertrophy and glomerular hyperfiltration are maintained through the production of angiotensin II and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling. This leads to heightened podocyte loss and further proteinuria. Angiotensin II, a peptide hormone of RAS, induces vasoconstriction and the secretion of aldosterone. This triggers a consequential rise in blood pressure and sodium retention30.

The inhibition of PECs, consequential reduction of podocyte replacement, and formation of FSGS lesions may also involve angiotensin II90. A marker of the nephron damage that has occurred is the presence of proteinuria due to the structural changes at the glomerulus. Proteinuria is predictive for CKD progression and is defined as a GFR reduction of >5 ml/min/1.73 m2 per year, which is approximately seven times the rate associated with loss due to aging87,91,92.

When does fibrosis develop in chronic kidney disease?

T1 CKD_Fig7.png

Figure 7. The development of interstitial fibrosis in advanced-stage chronic kidney disease (Adapted30). CKD, chronic kidney disease.

As a consequence of nephron loss, wound healing occurs through responses such as interstitial fibrosis (Figure 7). Interstitial inflammation and fibrosis are promoted by proinflammatory and pro­fibrotic mediators that are released as a result of immune cell and albuminuria infiltration and proximal tubular epithelial cell activation93. In diabetes, the activation of proximal tubular epithelial cells is further enhanced by glucosuria93.

Interstitial fibrosis may also drive further nephron injury due to the development of renal ischaemia93; however, scar formation may have the ability to stabilise the remaining nephrons94. Increased secondary tubular injury due to the increased tubular transport workload of the remaining nephrons is also promoted through a variety of mechanisms including88,95: 

  • anaerobic metabolism
  • intracellular acidosis
  • endoplasmic reticulum stress

What are the systemic complications of chronic kidney disease?

Due to the key role kidneys play in various complex processes, such as blood homeostasis, bone integrity, acid-base balance, electrolyte levels and blood pressure, nephron declines cause a number of complications in these systems30:

  • Metabolic acidosis
  • Anaemia
  • Mineral bone disorder; vitamin D deficiency, hyperparathyroidism, hyperkalaemia, and hyperphosphataemia
  • Arterial hypertension
  • Hyperuricaemia and expansion of effective circulating fluid volume
  • Childhood dyslipidaemia, endocrine abnormalities, and growth impairment

The symptoms of these complications can include, fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, pruritis, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramping, oedema and shortness of breath30. Notably, dyslipidaemia, hyperuricaemia, and hypertension are associated with cardiovascular disease; the leading cause of CKD patient death worldwide36.

Learn about the importance of early CKD diagnosis

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